Just as dashes and parentheses [brackets] provide shades of meaning in lieu of commas, so with semicolons and colons; however, they are punctuation marks that should be used with caution. Think of a sliding scale to indicate the length of a necessary pause, or a change in emphasis and balance, from comma to full stop:
, ; : .
There are some rules which must be followed, but otherwise, you use them according to your style; if in doubt, do not use them.
Use a semicolon whenever the items in a list are long, or contain their own, internal punctuation. The list may be an inventory, a list of clauses in a complex sentence, or a list of subparagraphs:
This chapter should teach us how to punctuate with confidence; how to recognise the different parts of speech; how to write sentences and paragraphs that are fluent, with a good use of connecting devices; and, lastly, how to communicate effectively.
This chapter should teach us how to:
- punctuate with confidence;
- recognise the different parts of speech;
- write sentences and paragraphs that are fluent, with a good use of connecting devices; and, lastly,
- communicate effectively.
Use a semicolon as an alternative to a comma to separate two independent clauses which have a common theme. To bring out the link between the two, you may use a semicolon because a comma is too weak and a fullstop too strong - both of them not being useful to emphasise the link:
On this course, you must strive for perfection; otherwise, you will not get as much out of it as you should.Anyone may join this class; however, anyone who does so, will be expected to work hard.
Use a colon when there is no conjunction and there is a balance between the two halves of a sentence. Because you are showing a balance, the colon serves as the log in the middle of a seesaw - you should not use a colon and a semicolon in the same sentence, and never use two colons:
Anyone may join this course: there are no prerequisites.If you want to get on in business, be prepared to work hard: that applies equally to university courses.
Use a colon to introduce a list or a long quotation [which should be inset if it runs to more than a couple of lines - think about graphic design]. Always make sure that items in such a list follow the same construction - all begin with the same part of speech, for example. The reader should be able to read the stem [the introductory part] and each item of the list, as one complete sentence:
The manager said there would be three changes: a $5 bonus for staff, Sunday rates on Saturdays, and pies and chips on sale more often.
Not
The manager said there would be three changes: a $5 bonus, you will get Sunday rates on Saturdays, and the canteen will sell ...
Read as three separate sentences, this would lead to:
The manager said there would be a $5 bonus
The manager said there would be you will get ...
The manager said there would be the dining hall ...
The manager made the following statement:"Those who are no more than 5 minutes late in a month will get a $5 bonus. If anyone is prepared to work on Sunday, she will get Saturday rates. The canteen will now serve pie and chips at breakfast as well as at dinner."
Many people are needlessly scared of using apostrophes, and the result is that they either refuse to use them at all, they put them wherever the letter s appears, or they put them on top of the s because they are not sure whether to go before the s or after it!
Apostrophes are used to show that letters have been missed out of words:
can't don't o'clock they're 'orrible
[The simple rule in formal business writing is not to use contractions - spell everything in full.]
Apostrophes are also used to show that something belongs to someone or something:
the cleaning lady's Rolls Royce
Mrs Cutts's Rolls Royce
the cleaning ladies' Rolls Royces
Ask if the expression could be expanded to include the words of or belonging to - if so, then you need an apostrophe:
the Rolls Royce of the cleaning lady
the Rolls Royce belonging to Mrs Cutts
The real problem often lies in where to place the rotten thing when you know one is needed! There are many answers in many books, but as this is the essentials of punctuation, we will take an easy way. Ask if the possessor is one person or thing - and then add ['s]; if the owner is more than one, then add [s']:
|
the students' letters |
the cleaning ladies' Rolls |
|
the engineer's spanner |
a hair's breadth |
|
the buses' tyres |
the bus's tyres |
Do not use an apostrophe to show a simple plural where there are no missing letters and no possession:
- the 90s
- the Smiths
Inverted commas are also known as quotation marks. They can be single or double; people used doubles once upon a time, whereas us upward mobiles now use singles! You may use either - the tendency is to use singles, then doubles, because of the less effort involved on a keyboard. I prefer to use italics rather than inverted commas: the effect is the same - to show that what is in italics is not part of the normal text.
Inverted commas are used to show
My secretary refused to make the tea, yesterday. She said 'I am employed as a secretary, not as a charlady.'The Sex Discrimination Act says: 'Secretaries should not be asked to make the tea unless you are prepared to pay them extra out of your own pocket.'
The word 'char' comes from the Sanskrit.
When I say 'tea', I don't mean 'tea', I mean 'coffee'.
Doubles are used if there is need to use inverted commas within the ones you are already using:
My secretary said * 'You should read the article in "The Bulletin" which says that secretaries do not make tea for chauvinist pig bosses.'
I reported her to the Dean for abusive language. I said * 'I do not like being called "a chauvinist pig boss" when I only asked her to do what all secretaries are supposed to do.'
Because I tend to use italics instead of inverted commas, I would use single commas round those parts marked with doubles -
My secretary said *You should read the article in 'The Bulletin' which says that secretaries do not make tea for chauvinist pig bosses.
*Note that the trend is to omit any punctuation between the direct and indirect speech. Some authorities recommend the use of a comma to separate the actual words spoken from the rest of the sentence, but there is no need for it - the inverted commas or italics make quite clear who said what.
Some people are worried by the confusion which can reign at the end of a sentence which uses inverted commas, as in the following:
The manager asked 'Did your secretary ask you "Have you read 'The Bulletin'?"?'
For the sake of punctuation essentials, you should rewrite anything which leads you to a similar situation. And that applies to all other difficulties; if in doubt, find a way of writing it that will avoid the issue. It just means a bit more of a think!
There are many more things to say about .......... and all those ,,,,,,,,,, and !!!!!!!!!!!!!! and ----------, not forgetting the ??????????????? and [ ******** etc etc etc. However, this is punctuation for survival, and you have more than enough here to help you get by in most circumstances. Intelligent communicators should be prepared to master the basic, few rules - and use a good reference book or proofreader for anything else.
Education is, amongst other things, learning to know where there is a problem, and likely places to find the answers. Be proud of the quality of your written work, try to help others to be effective communicators, and do not be afraid to consult the reference book, nor to ask others for help.
And just to see what a clever clogs you are, punctuate:
there is too much space between pig and and and and and whistle
[the hotel keeper was talking to the signwriter]
jones where smith had had had had had had had had had had had a better effect on the examiners
[one lecturer talking to another about exam results]
Contact me by email if you need a solution.